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STRUCTURE OF GERMANIUM ISOTOPES
By Prof. Lefteris Kaliambos ( Natural Philosopher in New Energy) ( September 2014) Historically the discovery of the assumed uncharged neutron (1932) along with the invalid relativity (EXPERIMENTS REJECT RELATIVITY) led to the abandonment of the well-established electromagnetic laws, in favour of various contradicting nuclear theories, which could not lead to the nuclear structure. Under this physics crisis and using the charged UP and DOWN quarks , discovered by Gell-Mann and Zweig, I published my paper “Nuclear structure is governed by the fundamental laws of electromagnetism ” (2003), which led to my discovery of the new structure of protons and neutrons given by proton = + 5d + 4u = 288 quarks = mass of 1836.15 electrons neutron = + 4u + 8d = 288 quarks = mass of 1838.68 electrons The paper was also presented at a nuclear conference held at NCSR "Demokritos" (2002). In this photo I am with the student of Einstein Dr Th. Kalogeropoulos who criticised my discovery of nuclear force and structure by believing that the nuclear structure is due to the invalid relativity. Nevertheless, here one can see the 9 charged quarks in proton and the 12 ones in neutron able to give the charge distributions in nucleons for revealing the strong electromagnetic force for the nuclear binding in the correct nuclear structure by applying the laws of electromagnetism. You can see my papers of nuclear structure in my FUNDAMENTAL PHYSICS CONCEPTS . Note that according to my discovery of the LAW OF ENERGY AND MASS the mass defect in the nuclear structure is due to the photon mass of the emitting dipolic photon presented at the international conference "Frontiers of fundamental physics" (1993) organised by the natural philosophers M. Barone and F. Selleri , who gave me an award including a disc of the atomic philosopher Democritus. Nevertheless today many physicist continue to apply not the well-established laws but the various fallacious nuclear structure models which lead to complications. Germanium (Ge) has five naturally occurring isotopes, Ge-70, Ge-72, Ge-73, Ge-74, and Ge-76. Of these, Ge-76 is very slightly radioactive, decaying by double beta decay with a half-life of 1.78 × 1021 years (130 billion times the age of the universe). Stable Ge-74 is the most common isotope, having a natural abundance of approximately 36%. Ge-76 is the least common with a natural abundance of approximately 7%. When bombarded with alpha particles, the isotopes Ge-72 and Ge-76 will generate stable As-75 and Se-77, releasing high energy electrons in the process. At least 27 radioisotopes have also been synthesized ranging in atomic mass from 58 to 89. The most stable of these is Ge-68, decaying by electron capture with a half-life of 270.95 d. It decays to the medically useful positron-emitting isotope Ga-68. (See gallium-68 generator for notes on the source of this isotope, and its medical use). The least stable known germanium stable is Ge-60 with a half-life of 30 ms. STRUCTURE OF Ge-64, Ge-66, Ge-68, Ge-70, Ge-72, Ge-74 AND Ge-76 WITH S = 0 ' For understanding the structure of the above nuclides having S = 0 you may study carefully the diagram of Ge-64 of my STRUCTURE OF Ge-64, Ge-70, Ge-72, Ge-70, Ge-74, Ge-76 AND Ge-73 . In the diagram of Ge-64 you see that the structure of the above nuclides belongs to a group which gives stable nuclides of high symmetry based on the structure of Ge-64 with S=0, having 32 protons and 32 neutrons, while the group based on the structure of Ge-65 with S -3/2 having 32 protons and 33 neutrons gives always unstable nuclides because such structures of S = -3/2 break the high symmetry. In the diagram of Ge-64 we see that in the presence of 2 or 4 extra neutrons of opposite spins we get the structures of Ge-66 and Ge-68. In such structures the extra neutrons makes 2 bonds per neutron but the small number of neutrons cannot give enough binding energies to pn bonds for overcoming the pp and nn repulsions . Then in the presence of more extra neutrons of opposite spins we get the structures of the stable Ge-70 , Ge-72, and Ge-74 . In these cases we observe several blank positions for receiving extra neutrons with two bonds per neutron, which give enough energies to pn bonds for overcoming the pp and nn repulsions. However in the structure of Ge-76 with S=0 there are two more extra neutrons than those of Ge-74 but they make two weak horizontal bonds per neutron. '''NUCLEAR STRUCTURE Of Ge-78, Ge-80, Ge-82, Ge-84, Ge-86, AND Ge-88 WITH S=0 ' It is of interest to note that in heavier nuclides in the absence of blank positions the two more extra neutrons than those of Ge-76 make single bonds leading to the decay. That is, all the above unstable nuclides have extra neutrons of opposite spins which make single bonds. For example the Ge-88 with S=0 has 12 more extra neutrons of opposite spins than those of Ge-76 which make single bonds leading to the decay. '''NUCLEAR STRUCTURE OF Ge-62, Ge-60, AND Ge-58 WITH S= 0 In the absence of neutrons the structure of the above unstable nuclides is based on the structure of Ge-64 with S= 0. For example in the structure of Ge-58 we have 6 absent neutrons of opposite spins. ' 'STRUCTURE OF Ge-73, Ge-77, Ge-81, Ge-83, Ge-85, Ge-87, AND Ge-89 The structure of the above unstable nuclides is based on the stable structure of Ge-73 with S = +9/2 . In my paper STRUCTURE OF Ge-73 we explain why the Ge-73 with S = +9/2 is a stable nuclide Then, in the presence of more extra neutrons than those of Ge-73 we get the unstable structures of the above nuclides because the extra neutrons make single bonds unable to overcome the repulsions. For example the Ge-87 with S = +5/2 has 14 more extra neutrons than those of Ge-73. Particularly it has 4 more extra neutrons of negative spins and 10 more extra neutrons of opposite spins giving S = 0 . In other words the total spin of Ge-87 is given by S = +9/2 + 4(-1/2) + 0 = +5/2 ' 'STRUCTURE OF Ge-65, Ge-67, Ge-69, Ge-71, Ge-75, AND Ge-79 ' '''In the presence of one extra neutron in the structure of Ge-64 the deuteron p32n32 changes the spin from S = +1 to S = -1. Using again the diagram of the Ge-64 we conclude that it goes from the first horizontal plane of positive spins to the sixth horizontal plane of negative spins in order to make horizontal bonds withn11p11 in front of them. Note that this change of spins gives S = -2. Under this condition the one extra n33(+1/2) fills the blank position and makes two bonds with p2 and p25. That is, in this arrangement of nucleons which brakes the high symmetry, the total spin of Ge-65 is given by S = -2 + 1(+1/2) = -3/2 Then, in the presence of more extra neutrons we see that the structures of the above nuclides are based on the structure of Ge-65. For example the Ge-79 with S = -1/2 has 14 more extra neutrons than those of Ge-65. Particularly it has 2 more extra neutrons of positive spins and 12 more extra neutrons of opposite spins giving S=0 . That is S = -3/2 + 2(+1/2) + 0 = -1/2. ' ' '''NUCLEAR STRUCTURE OF Ge-63, Ge-61, AND Ge-59 ' In the absence of neutrons we see that the unstable structure of the above nuclides is based on the structure of Ge-65 with S = -3/2. For example in the structure of Ge-59 with S = -7/2 we have 4 absent neutrons with positive spins and 2 absent neutrons of opposite spins giving S = 0. That is, the total spin of Ge-59 is given by S = -3/2 - 4(+1/2) - 0 = -7/2 Category:Fundamental physics concepts